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Purpose of Fire Starting
Fire is essential to survival in an outdoors survival context, as it fulfils a variety of functions:
Protection against the elements
Provide warmth, especially in the night when the temperature drops
Dry clothes, to prevent hypothermia
Protection from other animals
Scare away dangerous animals
Smoke repels insects and pests
Location
Smoke signals
Acquisition of food and tools
Cooking
Heat metal to make tools
Fire Triangle
All fires require 3 elements – fuel, oxygen and heat to start
If any one of these element is absent, the triangle ‘collapses’ and the fire goes out
Fuel
Fuel
Fuel refers to any combustible material and is the medium through which the fire sustains.
In the context of outdoors fire starting, this refers to our tinder, kindling and fuel wood.
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for combustion to take place.
Therefore, in order for your fire to be healthy and sustainable, it has to receive a good flow of air.
Heat
Heat
A heat source is responsible for the initial ignition of fire, and is also needed to maintain the fire and enable it to spread.
Heat allows fire to spread by drying out and preheating nearby fuel and warming surrounding air.
Ways to provide heat:
Matches
Lens
Flint
Types of Fire Starting Materials
Tinder
Tinder
Tinder is any highly combustible substance that takes only minimal heat, e.g. a small spark, to ignite.
Tinder is better finely fibred. It serves as the foundation for your fire to get going.
It is important for the tinder to be dry, hence it is advised that they are carried in a waterproof container.
Examples of tinder: dried grass, fine wood shavings, dried coconut husk fibres, cotton fluffs, paper, dryer lint, steel wool
Kindling
Kindling
Kindling is thicker material used to raise the flames from the tinder.
As the fire is still small and unstable, it is similarly important for your kindling to be dry to prevent smothering the flames. Hence, do not collect kindling straight from the earth, as they are usually damp.
Instead, obtain kindling from standing dead wood. If the kindling is damp, shave it to expose the dry middle
Examples of kindling: small dried twigs, pine cones, dried bark, softwoods
Fuel Wood
Fuel Wood
Fuel wood are large pieces of wood that can sustain the fire for a long time once ignited.
Once the fire is established, you can use greener wood or dry out damp wood.
In general, the heavier the wood, the more heat it will produce.
Mixing green and dry wood makes a long lasting fire useful for the night.
Where wood is scarce, other fuels can be used.
Examples of alternative fuel: dried animal droppings, coal, oil, animal fats
Site Selection
Choose a site that is sheltered, especially during high winds.
2. Avoid lighting a fire at the base of a tree or stump.
3. Clear away leaves, twigs, moss and dry grass within 1m radius of the intended site of fire. Scrape away everything until there is only bare earth.
4. If the ground is wet, the fire must be built on a platform, which can be a layer of rocks or green logs. (Fig.1 & 2)
Fire Stack
Good air circulation can be achieved by arranging your fire starting materials strategically.
As heat rises, your materials should also be arranged in such a manner for heat to be transferred from the tinder to kindling to fuel wood.
Examples of fire stacks: Tepee Fire Stack, Log Cabin Fire Stack, Lean-to Fire Stack
Tepee Fire Stack
Tepee Fire Stack
Most effective fire arrangement
Arrange sticks of kindling in the shape of a cone, with tinder in the centre.
Additional layers of tepee can be built around the fire with larger kindling or fuel wood as the fire burns.
Log Cabin Fire Stack
Log Cabin Fire Stack
Stack layers of fuel wood/ kindling in decreasing size and in alternating directions to form four ‘walls’ in the shape of a square.
Place the tinder in the middle.
Can be combined with a tepee.
Lean-to Fire Stack
Lean-to Fire Stack
Push a long stick into the ground at a flat angle, with the tip facing the wind.
Place tinder under the stick, and lean sticks of kindling on the main stick.
Add more kindling as needed.
Heat
- Using matches
Matches are the easiest way to light a fire. Carry the usual non-safety type and carry as many as possible.
Pack them in waterproof containers so they do not rub or rattle against each other and ignite by accident.
Waterproof your matches by dipping them into/ dripping candle wax (Fig. 9). Scrape off the wax when ready to strike.
2. Using lens
2. Using lens
Strong direct sunlight that is focused (such as through a magnifying glass) can produce sufficient heat to ignite tinder.
Steps:
Shield tinder from the wind.
Focus the sun’s ray to form a small bright spot of light on the tinder.
Keep the spot of light steady.
Blow on it gently as it begins to glow.
3. Using flint
3. Using flint
Flint is a stone that produces sparks when struck with steel, and is a primitive but reliable method for starting fire.
Unlike matches, it will not be ruined when damp.
Although natural flint has since been replaced by better performing man-made metals, ‘flint’ continues to refer to modern fire strikers found commonly in survival kits. One example is the ‘magnesium flint’ (Fig.10).
The magnesium flint is made up of a ‘flint’ rod, glued to the side of a magnesium block.
Survival flints usually come with a striker as well.
Use the striker or a knife to scrape some magnesium off, into a pile over your tinder.
Draw the striker along the ‘flint’ in a fast motion to produce sparks over the shaved
magnesium.
Shaved magnesium is highly flammable, and will burst into flames, igniting your
tinder.
Safety Precautions
Avoid placing wet or porous rocks, and any that are cracked or flaky near fires, especially those that have been submerged in water – they may explode when heated.
Always have a means of extinguishing the fire nearby.
Extinguishing Fire
As mentioned above, all fires require fuel, oxygen, and heat to sustain. Hence, a fire can be extinguished by removal of one or more of the elements of the fire triangle.
Removal of Fuel
Removal of Fuel
The fire naturally extinguishes when all the fuel has been burnt out.
Speed up this process by spreading out your fuel such that unburnt fuel does not catch fire.
Removal of Oxygen
Removal of Oxygen
Cut off the oxygen supply and suffocate the fire by covering it with something inflammable e.g. a layer of sand, metal tin, wet blanket
Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers put out fires by displacing the oxygen.
Removal of Heat
Removal of Heat
Heat can be removed by dousing the fire with water.
Spreading the fuel out also aids in extinguishing the fire by spreading out the heat.
Water and Foam fire extinguishers work by removing heat.
Creating Smoke
Smoke creation is needed for smoke signalling
Shown below are 3 methods of smoke creation
Using wood
Using wood
Use green wood. Burning green wood emits more white smoke than dead/ dry wood, due to its moisture content.
Use softwood. Softwood such as cedar, pine trees, and fir, burns with more smoke than hardwood. They can generally be identified by their needle-like leaves.
Reducing Oxygen Supply
Reducing Oxygen Supply
Reduce oxygen supply to the fire. When there is insufficient oxygen, incomplete combustion takes place, producing thicker and blacker smoke.
You can do so by holding a wet blanket over the fire for some moments.
Using Animal Fats and Dung
Using Animal Fats and Dung
Animal fats and dung produces darker smoke.
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